Ava Leas
Instagram handle: @psychforchange
April 2024
CONTENT WARNING: Mentions of childhood abuse, dating violence, and unhealthy/abusive relationships, as well as the behaviour involved with these topics. See the bottom of the page for support resources.
Abstract
This paper studies the relationship between adolescents who have gone through adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and their likeliness of being involved with teenage dating violence (TDV). As a child, the developing prefrontal cortex can make an individual more susceptible to developing abnormalities in personality, perception and behaviour due to the disrupted development of the prefrontal cortex, which contributes to our behaviour and personality (Nakazawa, 2016). These abnormalities can cause an individual to end up in TDV as a teenager, which can be associated with mental health issues, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and suicide. The long-term repercussions of TDR urges awareness of teenage dating violence to be addressed. This paper overviews the childhood risk factors for TDV, as well as the mental health challenges that can arise due to TDV. Additionally, this paper advocates for early prevention strategies for TDV, such as educating adolescents on healthy relationships and the establishment of resources for adolescents to receive support for detected TDV.
Key Words: Teenage Dating Violence, Development, Prevention, Relationships, Childhood Experiences.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Tool
The intensive study of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) first began in the mid-1990s. It originated in a study between 1995 – 1997 by the Centers for Disease Control and the Kaiser Permanente health care organization in California. In this initial study, researchers studied the correlation between traumatic childhood events and how it affected adult health.
As a result of this study, the Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire (ACE-Q) is a “brief rating scale” that has been sufficient in proving the correlation between adverse childhood experiences and adult mental and physical illnesses (Zarse, et al.). ACE-Q is a 10-item measure used to determine childhood trauma. The questionnaire assesses 10 types of childhood trauma revealed in the ACE study. Five are personal: physical abuse, verbal abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect. The other five are related to other family members: a parent who’s an alcoholic, a mother who’s a victim of domestic violence, a family member in jail, a family member diagnosed with a mental illness, and the disappearance of a parent through divorce, death or abandonment. As such, the ACEs study is a tool that can be used to determine an individual’s risk for future problems (e.g., substance use, mental health problems, criminal activity).
In fact, the initial ACE study discovered that there was a strong correlation between exposure to abuse or household dysfunction during childhood as one of the leading causes of death in adulthood (Webster). In their initial research, they discovered that adults who had experienced 4 or more ACEs showed a 2 times higher prevalence of health risks involving alcoholism, drug use, depression, and suicide attempts. The disturbing, yet groundbreaking ACEs study has undoubtedly raised awareness about the long-term repercussions of childhood trauma, and its prevalence in adulthood.
ACEs and Its Impact on An Individuals’ Psychological Development
The Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (ACES-Q) can be used as a preventive tool in measuring how likely an individual is to face repercussions and challenges in their adulthood due to their childhood trauma. The use of ACEs as a psychological risk assessment tool adds tone into how childhood experiences and trauma can have significant impact on an individual’s developmental trajectory.
The Social Learning Theory was first discovered in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. In this psychological theory, the idea proposed is that an individual can imitate behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions demonstrated by other people. In terms of studying the impact of childhood trauma in adulthood, the Social Learning Theory can be referenced, as it plays a fundamental role in the connection between experiencing ACEs and the negative behaviours associated with it. In this context, the Social Learning Theory explains that children often begin to reflect the actions or behaviours they observe in a peer or social circle.
One of the five ACEs that assesses your vulnerability in terms of household dysfunction asks if your mother or stepmother was treated violently through being: often pushed, grabbed, slapped, or had something thrown at her? Or Sometimes or often kicked, bitten, hit with a fist, or hit with something hard? Or Ever repeatedly hit over at least a few minutes or threatened with a gun or knife?
(Centres for Disease Control and Prevention and Kaiser Permanete Screening).
Additionally, the ACE-Q asks questions about experiencing and/or witnessing physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, emotional neglect, and physical neglect. As mentioned previously, the ACE-Q also asks questions about the “household dysfunction” relevant in your life, regarding areas such as: mental illness in a family member, incarcerated family member or relative, mother being treated violent, substance abuse in a parent or caregiver, and divorce in parents.
It is fair to conclude that an adolescent who has witnessed and/or experienced ACEs may be at an elevated risk of attracting a Teenage Dating Violence (TDR). Additionally, due to the adolescent’s ACEs, the individual may be at a higher risk for social, mental, and romantic challenges as they transition from childhood to adulthood.
Another common psychosocial development theory is referred to as the Attachment Theory, which was first developed by psychoanalyst John Bowlby in the 1950s. In this particular theory, Bowlby attempted to understand the “intense distress” experienced by infants and children who had been separated from their parents (Fraley). Although Bowlby had mostly focused on studying the relationship between an infant and a caregiver, he also believed that attachment theory characterized human experience, from birth to death (Fraley). This sense of security and safety associated with a caregiver happens when you are a child, which plays an integral role in your prefrontal cortex development and its perception of behaviour and personality. If the development is disrupted by one or more of the ACEs it can cause an early onset of abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex’s development (Nakazawa). Additionally, the attachment theory can be used as a tool to predict the emotional responses an individual may demonstrate in their romantic relationships, as a result of the attachment they had to their caregiver(s) as a child.
Psychosocial Theories in Relation To TDV
Dating violence includes criminal acts (per the Criminal Code) such as physical and sexual abuse, alongside forms of violence that may not be considered criminal, such as emotional abuse. In Canada, more than 4 in 10 (45%) teens aged 15 to 17 have experienced some form of dating violence. (Statistics Canada). In article published by Statistics Canada, the most common of violence in dating violence is emotional abuse (45%), followed by physical violence (10%), and sexual violence (7%).
While any adolescent can experience TDV, it is more likely that individuals who have ACEs will experience some form of violence in their relationship, as the effects from the childhood trauma have long-term repercussions that impact relationships. Especially when transitioning from childhood to early adulthood, it is likely that the individual is experiencing challenges associated with developmental changes and environmental adjustments (e.g., school, social circles), which puts the adolescent at risk of being more vulnerable to dating violence.
In relation to psychosocial theories and TDV, the Social Learning Theory can be used to understand the patterns and behaviours in an individual and their romantic relationship. If an adolescent experienced ACEs associated with physical abuse, you could guess that they may be at an elevated risk of unhealthy relationships involving physical abuse and/or aggression. Per the Social Learning Theory, this risk is considered to be at elevation by understanding that the adolescent experienced and/or witnessed some type of physical violence as a child, which means they could be more susceptible to exhibiting violent, aggressive behaviour in relationships, as that is what they grew up witnessing (or experiencing).
Conversely, the Attachment Theory also plays a role in further understanding the correlation between psychosocial models and the risk of TDV. If a child faces early onset emotional separation from their caregiver, they may develop an ambivalent attachment style that presents in their relationship. An ambivalent attachment style is one of the four attachment styles that are theorized to present in an individual’s actions regarding their attitude and behaviour in relationships. For example, if a teenager has an ambivalent attachment style prominent in their relationship, they may be more likely to fear abandonment, resulting in them to stay in potentially unhealthy and violent relationships. Likewise, if an adolescent experienced ACEs associated with separation or loss from a parent, they may feel hesitant in communicating their needs and comfort in a relationship as they fear their partner leaving them, or “abandoning” them (which are traits of an ambivalent attachment style). Not communicating your needs, comforts and desires in a romantic relationship can lead to susceptibility in being easily taken advantage of, which is a common occurrence in TDV.
While the perpetration of violence can occur due to a variety of reasons, examining the psychosocial factors can help raise awareness about the impact of childhood trauma and adverse experiences on individuals. For instance, raising awareness about the relation between dysfunctional families and a child’s inability to feel emotionally and physically safe with their caregivers can pose as an early indicator of possible risks to TDV later in their formative years. However, it is important to note that having ACEs does not make an individual inherently capable of being involved in TDV, but rather to be assessed at a risk level for prevention purposes.
TDV and Mental Health Issues
While teens are going through their developmental years, being exposed to dating violence at a young age of their life can result in both physical and psychological issues. Namely, suicide attempts, drug abuse, and a wide range of other physical health issues are likely to occur as a result of exposure to teen dating violence. Additionally, the psychological issues that can arise due to teen dating violence include depressive symptoms, high-risk behaviour (e.g., impulsivity), suicidal ideation, and poor skills associated with conflict and anger management (Piolanti, et al.).
As such, the early involvement in teenage dating violence is a risky behaviour that is likely to reflect detrimental and long-term consequences, such as problems arising in psychiatric disorders and drug abuse. In a recent study conducted by Taquette and Monterio, several population-based studies had proven that the most common consequences of teen dating violence include “low self-esteem, depressive symptoms, psychiatric disorders, drug abuse, risky sexual behavior, and low academic performance.” (Taquette, Monterio).
If an individual falls into TDV during their teenage, formative years, it is likely that they are at risk of being victimized again between adolescence into early adulthood (Jouriles, et al.). The effects of TDV can cause long-term psychological repercussions, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (J. Flowers Health Staff).
Trauma can be theorized to be a factor contributing to recurring victimization. For instance, the trauma symptoms may interfere with an individual’s ability to properly assess risk factors for violence and respond adaptively. Additionally, an individual may struggle to accurately perceive dangerous, unhealthy, abusive and/or manipulative behaviours as repeated TDR, given their past trauma which inevitably co-exists with familiarity in certain behaviours and actions. Thus, the individual may not be able to tell whether or not presenting, abusive behaviour is dangerous and violent.
Risk Factors for TDV Going Unreported
The prefrontal cortex is not reported to fully develop until age 25. In fact, the prefrontal cortex can be referred to as the “rational” part of the brain, as it is the part of the brain primarily responsible for making decisions (University of Rochester). As a result of this, a teenager may be more susceptible to intimate partner violence, as they are neurologically at risk of not being able to weigh decisions due to the ongoing prefrontal cortex development.
Additionally, it may be unlikely that a teenager has had a previous intimate relationship before. Thus, the inexperience in an intimate relationship context can lead a teenager to leave dating violence not disclosed, and unreported to police and authorities, such as school counsellors. This is due to the inability to distinguish what exhibited behaviours are “normal” or not. Specifically, when an adolescent experiences name-calling, teasing, and even some forms of physical violence, an individual may think that these actions are a “normal” part of a relationship.
These behaviours can cause unhealthy behaviour to expand into violent and abusive behaviour if not addressed and talked about.
Additionally, this factor can increase the likelihood of re-victimization, as the teen may go into early adulthood perceiving repeated violent, unhealthy behaviour as “normal.”
Reportedly, many teenagers fail to report unhealthy behaviours as they are afraid to disclose the behaviour to their family and friends (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). While there is not enough research that analyzes the reason for choosing not to disclose TDV to family and friends, psychosocial factors — such as fear of judgement or confrontation — can be a cause.
Early Prevention Factors
One of the ways to prevent the long-term damage and trauma of teen dating violence is to allocate early prevention factors and workshops. A way to initiate wide-spread prevention of teenage dating violence is to host educational workshops at school.
For example, hosting a school-wide assembly educating middle school and/or high school students on healthy relationships and what they look like can is important, as it establishes the healthy boundaries and standards of a fulfilling, safe and healthy relationship. Additionally, school-wide education on healthy relationships invites open and honest conversations amongst teenagers and positive, support figures (e.g., parents, school counsellors) about any concerns they may have about unhealthy relationships — whether it is one they are currently in, or a relationship endorsed by someone else.
An effective school-based program will be able to change unhealthy, toxic norms, improve problem-solving, and address dating violence in addition to other risk behaviours (e.g., substance use and sexual risk behaviour).
A school has the ability to make announcements and spread information throughout students and families. If the school partners with local youth resources and centers, they can allocate a point of outreach resources for youth to go to if they are wanting to receive help for TDV or any of the repercussions due to the violence (e.g., PTSD).
It’s also important to address family violence in the home. The ACE-Q addresses five questions that relate to family dysfunctions, such as violence against a mother. The ACE-Q also assesses violent behaviour and abuse directed against the child through five other questions. This is important to assess, because children who are exposed to Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in their families (e.g., IPV against their mother) and/or child maltreatment (i.e., physical abuse and neglect) are more likely to become involved in TDV as victims, perpetrators, or both (Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia).
Under The Child, Youth and Family Community Service Act, it is a teacher’s legal duty to report suspected abuse in a child. Under the Act, the Minister designates the Director of Child Protection, who refers a child protection social worker to the family. By reporting, the legal responsibility to protect child welfare is fulfilled. It also allocates the administration of child and family services that may be necessary, as per The Child and Family Services Authorities Act.
Conclusion
The influence of ACEs in association with TDV is high. Adolescents who have gone through ACEs may be more likely to be perpetrators or victims, or both, of TDV. Due to the experience and/or witnessing of ACEs (e.g., violence against mother or stepmother), an adolescent may gravitate to exhibiting behaviour, emotional responses and actions similar to the ones they have observed, witnessed and experienced home — per the Social Learning Theory.
Additionally, the repercussions of childhood trauma associated with early attachment disruptions to a caregiver may lead to abnormalities in behaviour patterns in relationships, leading to an increased likelihood of being involved in TDV — per the Attachment Theory.
While experiencing childhood trauma does not inherently make an adolescent capable of being a perpetrator and/or victim of teenage dating violence, the inexperience associated with intimate relationships may make it difficult for the teenager to identify what behaviour is normal and what is not. Thus, their childhood trauma and adverse experiences leading them to believe that unhealthy, violent behaviour is “normal,” as this is what they have witnessed, experienced, and observed at home.
The long-term repercussions and consequences of TDR associated with physical and psychological challenges are why the topic of TDR urges to be addressed. If an individual experiences TDR, it is also likely that they will be re-victimized, due to their presenting symptoms of PTSD. The physical health risks that derive from TDV involve suicidal attempts, drug abuse, risky sexual behaviour, and physical injuries from physical violence. Conversely, the psychological damages from TDR are lifelong, as psychiatric disorders can be caused by TDR.
Resources
- VictimLinkBC 1-800-563-0808
- Kids Help Phone 1-800-668-6868
- WAVAW Rape Crisis Centre 604-255-6344
- The Youth Against Violence Line (Text): 604-836-6381
You are not alone! ❤
Works Cited
Abrams, Zara. “Up to 19% of teens experience dating violence. Psychologists want to break the cycle.” American Psychiatric Association. 1 Oct 2023. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2023/10/disrupting-teen-dating-violence
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Fast Facts: Preventing Teen Dating Violence.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 27 Jan. 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/teendatingviolence/fastfact.html#:~:text=Teens%20often%20think%20some%20behaviors,to%20tell%20family%20and%20friends.
J Flowers Health. “Teen Dating Violence.” J Flowers Health. Accessed 3 Apr. 2024. https://jflowershealth.com/teen-dating-violence/
Jouriles, Ernest N, et al. “Teen Dating Violence Victimization, Trauma Symptoms, and Revictimization in Early Adulthood.” National Library of Medicine. 28 Mar. 2017. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28363719/
Mcleod, Saul. “Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.” Simply Psychology. 1 Feb. 2024. https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html#:~:text=Social%20learning%20theory%2C%20proposed%20by,influence%20human%20learning%20and%20behavior.
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Statistics Canada. “Dating violence against teens aged 15 to 17 in Canada, 2009 to 2022.” Statistics Canada. 20 Mar. 2023. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/240320/dq240320e-eng.htm#
University of Rochester. “Understanding the Teen Brain.” University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed 3 Apr. 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?
Taquette, Stella R. “Causes and consequences of adolescent dating violence: a systematic review.” National Library of Medicine. 11 Jul 2019. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31263089/
University of Rochester. “Understanding the Teen Brain.” University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed 3 Apr. 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?
Webster, Erica M. “The Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Health and Development in Young Children.” National Library of Medicine. 26 Feb. 2022. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8882933/#:~:text=The%20ACE%20study%20measures%20traumatic,a%20risk%20for%20future%20problems.
Zarse, Emily M, et al. “The adverse childhood experiences questionnaire: Two decades of research on childhood trauma as a primary cause of adult mental illness, addiction, and medical diseases.” Taylor & Francis Online. 7 Mar 2019. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331205X.2019.1581447
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